GMAT考试中常见的八大逻辑陷阱，你避开了吗？

gmat作文常见逻辑错误：non-causal relationship 非因果关系逻辑错误1. correlation mistaken for causasion将相关性当做因果关系: the argument depends on anumprovencause-and-effect relationship between...and...The reason for...mighthave nothing to do with either,,,or ,,,For instance..For thatmatter...Withoutruling out these and other alternative explanations for... theauthor cannotreasonably conclude that... will have any effect on that cause(forthat matter:used to add a comment on sth that you have just said eg: Ididn''tlike it much.Nor did the kids, for that matter.)2. post hoc ergo propter hoc后此谬误: The authorassumes that... cause...Theline of reasoning is that because...before..., theformer event caused thelatter. But this is fallacious reasoningunless other possible causalexplanations have been considered and ruled out.For example, perhaps...Orperhaps... Yet another possibility is that...3. confuse the cause and effect混淆因果关系：It is possiblethat the mayor hasconfused cause with effectrespecting...Perhaps...Since...has failed to accountfor this possibility, theclaim that...is completely umfounded. Some otherpossible causes of... alsoshould not be ignored. Without ruling out these andother alternativeexplanations for... cannot reasonably infer based on thosetrends that...4. causal oversimplification因果关系简化the fallacy of analogy and comparison 比较与类比逻辑错误1. the fallacy of faulty analogy错误类比：It is highlydoubtful that the factsdrawn from..are applicable to...Differeces betwee thetwo industries clearlyoutweigh the similarities, thus making the analogy lessthan valid. For example,problems of... all affect...but are virtually absentin...Perhaps such thesemight present insurmountable obstaclesthat prevent.... (insurmountable: ofdifficulties, problems, that cannt bedealt with successfully)2. incomplete or sellective comparison不完整比较或选择性比较： The argument wasbased onthe assumption that...However, we are not given enough informationabout thestudy to be sure that this comparison is reliable.problems concerning data 数据相关逻辑错误1. the insufficient sample fallacy 不充分采样错误：(1)样本作为整体的一个部分必须具有足够大的数量theconclusionthat...is based on too small a sample to bereliable;(2)样本在相关的特性方面必须具有整体的代表性 the only evidenceoffered in support of thisconclusion is the fact that...Unless it can be shownthat... is typical of all...thae fact that... is not grounds for concludingtaht... will experience similarresults/ the example cited, while suggestiveof... is insufficient to warranttheir truth because there is no reason tobelieve that data draw from... isrepresentative of the entire...2. the biased-sample fallacy有偏采样错误：the survey methodology mightbeproblematic in tworespects.(1)对调查的答复必须是可信的、真实的、准确的，需要参与调查的人保证不因为某些原因而给出不完整或者虚假的回复;(2)收集数据的方法必须公正，要避免在调查中，对问题的回答不做硬性要求，或者问题的设计使得参与者易于用某种特定的回答方式in either event,the survey results would be unreliable for the purpose ofdrawing anyconclusions about...let alone about...(a)who conducted the survey? -the poll cited by the author isdescribed inthe vaguest possible terms. The ad does not indicate who conductedthe poll, whorespond, or how the poll was conducted. Unless these questionsare answered, thesurvey results are worthless as evidence for public opinionabout...(b)are the statistics misleadingly vague?(c)when was the survey conducted?sufficient evidence and necessary condition充分条件与必要条件逻辑错误1. sufficient-condition problems 充分条件问题2. necessary-condision problems 必要条件问题3. sufficient and necessary conditionproblems 充要条件问题 In order todo A, Bshould do C...只有B做C，A才能实现;只要B做了C，A就一定能实现composition and division 整体与部分逻辑错误1. what is true for a group is also true forany member 适用与整体的原则也适用于整体的任一个个体while thisreasoing may be sound in a generl sense, the particular XXX involvedin may notbe representative of XXX generally.2. what is true for a member is also true forthe group 对某个个体适用的东西对整体也适用 themost egregiousreasoning error in... is ....in this region as the basis for ageneralizationabout all...3. the fallacy of hastygeneralization/neglect of relevantevidence从几个个体所具有的某个特性推出整体也具有这个特性(急于概括)assuming aa things remain unchanged overtime 假定所有的事情都是一成不变类逻辑错误1. past conditions remain unchanged in thepresent and future过去的情况在今天和将来都保持不变 however, a recentone-year increase is insufficient evidenceitself to convince me that thistrend will continue2. present conditons will remain unchanged inthe future 目前情况在将来保持不变 theargumentassumes that relative supply conditions will remain unchanged over thenext 20years. However...may fluctuate greatly over a long timeperiod...Withoutconsidering other factors that contribute to...the firm cannotjustify itsrecommendation.false dilemma/ either-or thinking/ the black-white fallacy 错误的两难境地类逻辑错误the author assumes that reducing XXX and XXX are mutuallyexclusivealternatives. However, the author provides no reason for imposing aneither-orchoice.其他逻辑错误1. failing to weighing the advantages anddisavantages thoroughly考虑问题不全面2. failing to define important terms 没有限定重要词语3. circular reasoning / tautology/ beggingthe question 循环论证:在原题论述中，如果发现有重要假设没有任何论据支持，就可以就其循环论证的逻辑缺陷展开攻击4. drawing a conclusion that is too board indegree or scope得出的结论在程度或范围上过于广泛5. relying on vague or ambiguous evidence 依赖于模棱两可的证据：要注意留意原论述中用some,many,several来代替具体的百分比或数字的地方6. arguing simultaneously for two competingobjectives同时为两个相对立的目标辩论：在某些文章中，作者有时会试图同时为两个看起来相互对立的目标辩论，换句话说，如果作者想完成其中的一个目标，就会减小完成另一个目标的可能性7. irrational appeals 无理呼吁：包括诉诸于权威或情感8. ad hominem/ personal attack人身攻击9. straw argument 稻草人：树立一个易被攻击的靶子，忽略真正的问题;或者强加一个作者没有提及的易被攻击的问题10. false or questionable authority 错误权威